Ultimately, articulating your philosophy of education helps you describe how you feel about learning, but philosophies don’t provide guidelines for creating learning programs.

That’s where learning theories come in. Learning theories explain predictable relationships. In the field of learning, theories usually describe a relationship between communicating content and the outcomes of learning (often indicating a link between the presentation of learning material in a particular type of situation and how effectively learners will master the content).

More specifically, a theory of learning provides a general explanation for observations made over time, explaining and predicting behavior of learners in response to particular presentations of content in specific learning situations. In addition to explaining such a relationship, a theory embodies a series of beliefs and, therefore, cannot be proven beyond a reasonable doubt. In practical terms, that means someone can find a hole in your favorite theory and it’s likely to be a real one. That doesn’t mean the theory is a bad one; the theory just needs to be modified to explain that situation in which it did not work.

One other thing about theories: Theories are to education what fashion is to clothing. Theories become popular among educators and, at their height, everyone “wears” them. Of course, like fashionable clothing, the theories can be accessorized (that is, adapted differently), and knockoffs exist (situations in which theories are applied but not necessarily as appropriately or as well as prescribed in the original). Like fashion, too, theories go out of style.

Hundreds of theories exist to explain how people learn. Within each theoretical domain, dozens of specific sub-theories explain how to implement a given theory. But some theories hold up more strongly over time than others.

Three schools of theories dominate the discussion of learning theory: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. These do not align with the philosophies of adult learning, even though they have similar names. Each school of theory embodies an approach to learning, thoughts about the extent to which lessons should be structured, and approaches to evaluating the outcomes of learning. Each school of theory is also associated with a number of theorists. In addition, the framework of human performance improvement (also called human performance technology) guides the development of learning materials in workplace settings and is presented here. Behaviorism grew out of a movement in psychology and philosophy that emphasizes outward observable behavior. The mind is believed to be a black box that can only be understood through visible and outwardly manifested behaviors. This movement dismisses perceptions, thoughts, images, and feelings because they are internally experienced and therefore subjective and cannot be measured. As a result, thoughts, images, and feelings cannot lead to objective science.

Behaviorism also has a long association with instructional technology. Theories of behaviorism and philosophies of behaviorism offer the best alignment of philosophy and theory. Many of the strategies used in self-paced courses today are based on principles of behaviorism that hark back to its founders, Skinner (1961) and Watson (1913). The following instructional techniques have their roots in behaviorism:

• Shaping is a technique used to achieve a terminal behavior (an end state or main objective) by reinforcing small steps or approximations of them on the path to achieving the terminal behavior. In the case of shaping, successive responses that are increasingly similar to the desired end result are reinforced, and they increase. A good example of this can be found in the drawing lessons provided on About.com (http://drawsketch.about.com/ library/bl-step-dog.htm). In this example, learners master sketching animals by following a series of steps. Other examples are exercises that become progressively more difficult as they move learners from novice behavior to mastery of the skill. Another example is The Math Zone (http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/maths/timestable/), which offers practice in multiplication. It has progressively difficult drills with scores and time limits that shape multiplication behaviors.

• Opertant conditioning is a technique used to reinforce a proper response or correct answer by providing a reinforcement or stimulus. Examples of positive reinforcements are checkmarks, a pleasant tone, or a word of encouragement. The sounding of a buzzer or a clock running out of time are examples of negative reinforcements. For examples of positive and negative reinforcements, visit Sheppard Software (http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/ web_games.htm). Sheppard’s educational game, Locate the State, uses visual and audio reinforcements.

• Programmed instruction techniques include content arranged in small chunks and organized in a sequence advancing from simple to complex. The learner progresses to more complex material by responding correctly to the earlier, simpler material, receiving feedback, and responding to it. The low-tech PowerPoint 2000 lesson from the Land Grant Training Alliance (http:// www.lgta.org/ppt2000)is an excellent example of programmed instruction. It presents material in a simple to complex sequence and, throughout, provides exercises with feedback that enables learners to move at their own pace.

Cognitivism evolved out of the increasing dissatisfaction with a behaviorism that refused to acknowledge perceptions, thoughts, and images—the processes that go on in learners heads. Cognitivists choose to describe how learners process, store, and retrieve information using terms and analogy that are highly influenced by computer information processing models introduced in the 1960s. Evidence of this can be seen in the naming of concepts such as the “Three-Stage Information Processing Model” (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) used to describe the process of moving information from short-term to long-term memory.

Like behaviorism, cognitivism views the nature of knowledge as objective. That is, the goal of instruction remains to communicate or transfer knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective way possible. Examples of cognitivist techniques that facilitate effective transfer of knowledge are advance organizers (previews at the beginnings of lessons to help learners begin organizing the new content and integrating it into their existing knowledge bases), mnemonic devices (memory aids), metaphors (tools for helping learners link new content with known content), chunking content into meaningful parts, and the careful organization of instructional materials from simple to complex.

The following are instructional techniques that have their roots in cognitivism:

• New information is organized in a meaningful way to make learning efficient. Look for programs that use advance organizers, analogies, hierarchical relationships and matrices to make it easier for learners to remember and retrieve information. The BBC site for teaching German (http://www.bbc.co.uk/ languages/german/index.shtml) is an excellent example of organizing information in a meaningful way. Notice how the lessons differ in the German for Work, German for Travel, and Quick Phrases in German.

• New information is linked to existing knowledge. As you sample programs in the strategy section, take note of who the learners are and what their background might be and ask yourself what assumptions the instructional designers make about learners’ previous knowledge. A good example of how learning might be linked to past knowledge and used to motivate is the Annenbergy/CPB Learner.org program Amusement Park Physics (http://www.learner.org/exhibits/parkphysics/coaster.html). This site builds on grade school children’s experience of roller coasters. Using interactive graphics, learners develop an understanding of concepts such as velocity, time, and force.

• Programs guide and support learners in processing information. One technique for doing so is dual processing, which uses multiple channels to get information to the learner, such as text and visuals. A good example of a learning program that uses dual processing is Eatturkey.com (http:// www.eatturkey.com/foodsrv/celebrty/main.htm). This site features thirty virtual chefs who use visuals, text, and audio to teach learners how to cook with a turkey. Other techniques for guiding and supporting learners include progressively increasing the difficulty of tasks, using diverse problems, as well as the more explicit approach of devices such as pop-up menus and help screens that guide and support learners. These techniques help learners create mental connections; making these connections is a key component in cognitive theory.

Constructivism is based on the premise that learners can create their own understanding of the world by reflecting on current and past experiences. Learning takes place as a result of learners actively gathering and organizing or reorganizing information. Unlike behaviorism, in which learners are passive, blank slates into which teachers inject information, in constructivism, learners actively build or construct knowledge as they strive to make sense of their world. The role of the instructor is to encourage learners to discover principles, engage learners in dialog, and make information accessible to learners.

Supporters of constructivism see the growing capabilities of computer-based training, e-learning, and the Internet as an opportunity for developing constructivist environments. These environments would differ greatly from the behaviorist environment. Jonassen (1994) delineates the characteristics that characterize constructivist learning environments:

1. Provide multiple representations of reality.

2. Avoid oversimplication by showing the complexity of the real world through multiple representations.

3. Emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction.

4. Emphasize authentic tasks (real-world tasks) in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context.

5. Provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction.

6. Encourage thoughtful reflection on experience.

7. “Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction.” Constructivist learning environments support the collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners. Table 2.2 summarizes the differences among the three schools of learning theory by examining the nature of the learning, the type of learning for which each is best suited, and a sample of the tactical methods related to a given theoretical school. Human performance technology is a framework that strives to apply what is known about human and organizational behavior, including learning, to solve workplace problems. This framework looks beyond the narrow confines of learning and cognition to explain why workers fail to transfer learning. Broader explanations are explored, such as environment, motivation, and resources. Solutions often incorporate elements of behaviorism and cognitivism. HPI is often presented as a theory but is more aptly described as a methodology. For example, learners cannot use new software skills if the software hasn’t been installed on their computers—a resources issue. In other instances, learners do not perform tasks because they lack the motivation. In other words, prospective learners do know what to do; they just don’t feel like doing it. Sometimes, the problem exists with the individual, but more frequently the problem results from something in the unit or organization (Rummler & Brache, 1995). In instances when resources and motivation are lacking, no amount of training will solve the problem. Only solutions that address the lack of resources or motivation will work. In a practical sense, most problems have elements of all three—lack of skills and knowledge, resources, and motivation—and any solution should address all three. Human performance improvement, which supposes that instructional designers can ultimately engineer human behavior, is becoming the dominant theory guiding workplace learning.

In the view of human performance improvement, learners are supposed to achieve a well-defined result, which is related to a particular job task. Learning occurs within the context of the job, ideally within job tasks. The instructor is a guide of sorts, who helps learners achieve the desired performance, often commenting on the extent to which learners achieve the desired performance. But learning is only prescribed when learners lack skills and knowledge; for performance problems resulting from a lack of resources or motivation, learning is not an appropriate solution. Other characteristics of human performance improvement include the following:

• Performance improvement focuses on outcomes or end results, rather than means, like training.

• Performance improvement takes a systems view. Addressing a problem involves looking at the system in which the problem exists and recognizing all of the environmental issues that created it. It also uses a systematic approach to identifying and resolving performance problems, much as instructional systems design (ISD) takes a systematic approach to identifying and resolving learning problems.

• Performance improvement specialists first focus on defining problems; they do not suggest a solution until the problem is fully analyzed and defined.

• Performance improvement specialists constantly evaluate their work, both in formation and after it is released in the field, to assess its effectiveness and then use the feedback to adjust solutions so that they can be more effective.

Typical approaches to learning usually involve self-instruction or materials embedded into a job task. These include job aids (brief tips that remind people how to perform a task), performance support (electronic tools that assist people in performing a task, usually one that is performed online), on-the-job training, and wizards (software that performs tasks with minimal intervention by users, so that people achieve the intended results with minimal work). An example of an electronic job aid is MapQuest (www.mapquest.com), which provides directions and a map that helps users travel between two points. The Install Shield that appears whenever users install software on Windows-compatible systems is an example of a wizard. To see an example of electronic on-the-job coaching, look at the cash register screen the next time you check out of a department store. The screen prompts the sales associate to perform various tasks, including inserting a check (if the customer pays by check) or verifying that the signature on a credit card matches the signature on the receipt.

An e-learning program that exemplifies the performance improvement approach (more specifically, performance support) is Quicken’s website (www.quicken.com). It helps users assess financial situations and, if users assess themselves as ready for a given task, provides links to perform it. For example, in the loans section a user can assess various options for a home loan to determine which best meets their needs, as well as the user’s likelihood of being approved for a loan. If the user feels ready, the site also links users to sources of online mortgages. In this case, users are able to achieve goals within the context of the task they are performing.